Cannabis News - Social Impact and Public Opinion

Legalization Efforts and Political Landscape

Legalization efforts for cannabis have been a hot topic in recent years, with various countries and states around the world taking steps to either decriminalize or fully legalize the plant. This shift in attitude towards cannabis can largely be attributed to changing public opinion on the matter.


In the United States, for example, many states have already legalized cannabis for medicinal and even recreational use. This has sparked a wave of new legislation aimed at regulating the industry and ensuring that consumers have access to safe and high-quality products.


The political landscape surrounding cannabis legalization is also changing rapidly. Politicians on both sides of the aisle are starting to see the potential economic benefits of legalizing cannabis, as well as the social justice implications of ending prohibition.


However, there are still many obstacles to overcome before cannabis is fully accepted and legalized on a federal level. Public opinion remains divided on the issue, with some still clinging to outdated stereotypes about cannabis users and its supposed dangers.


Overall, though, it is clear that the tide is turning in favor of cannabis legalization. As more and more people become educated about the plant and its benefits, it is likely that we will continue to see progress in this area in the coming years.

The impact of cannabis legalization on communities and social equity is a topic that has sparked much debate and discussion in recent years. While some argue that legalization can lead to increased revenue for local governments and improved access to medical marijuana for patients, others are concerned about the potential negative effects on public health and safety.


One of the main arguments in favor of cannabis legalization is its potential to create new economic opportunities for communities. Legalization can bring in tax revenue that can be used to fund education, infrastructure, and other public services. Additionally, legalizing cannabis can create jobs in the industry, providing employment opportunities for residents of all backgrounds.


However, there are also concerns about the impact of cannabis legalization on social equity. Some worry that marginalized communities may be disproportionately affected by the criminal justice system if they continue to face harsh penalties for non-violent drug offenses. There is also concern about the potential for increased substance abuse and addiction among vulnerable populations.


Public opinion on cannabis legalization varies widely. While some believe that it should be treated like any other legal substance, others are hesitant to support legalization due to concerns about its potential negative effects. It is important for policymakers to carefully consider these factors when making decisions about cannabis policy in order to ensure that communities are protected and social equity is maintained.

Citations and other links

Public Perception and Attitudes Towards Cannabis

Public perception and attitudes towards cannabis have undergone a significant shift in recent years. As more states and countries move towards legalization, the stigma surrounding cannabis use has started to fade.


One of the key factors influencing this change in perception is the growing body of research highlighting the potential medicinal benefits of cannabis. Studies have shown that cannabis can be effective in treating a range of conditions, from chronic pain to anxiety disorders. This has led many people to view cannabis not just as a recreational drug, but as a legitimate form of medicine.


Additionally, the rise of social media and online platforms has made it easier for individuals to share their own positive experiences with cannabis. This has helped to normalize the use of cannabis and challenge outdated stereotypes.


However, public opinion on cannabis is still divided. While some people are supportive of legalization and see it as a harmless substance, others remain concerned about its potential negative effects, particularly on young people.


Overall, it is clear that public perception and attitudes towards cannabis are evolving. As more research is conducted and more states legalize its use, it will be interesting to see how these attitudes continue to change in the future.

Cannabis News

Public Perception and Attitudes Towards Cannabis
Influence of Media Coverage on Public Opinion

Influence of Media Coverage on Public Opinion

The influence of media coverage on public opinion regarding cannabis news is undeniable. The way in which the media chooses to report on this topic can significantly shape how the general population perceives cannabis use, legalization, and its overall impact on society.


Media outlets have the power to frame the narrative around cannabis in either a positive or negative light, depending on their agenda or biases. For example, sensationalized stories of cannabis-related crimes or accidents can perpetuate stereotypes and stigmas associated with marijuana use. On the other hand, well-researched articles highlighting the medicinal benefits of cannabis or success stories of individuals who have benefited from its use can help change public perception.


Furthermore, the frequency and tone of media coverage can also play a role in shaping public opinion. If cannabis news is consistently portrayed in a negative light without any balance or nuance, it can lead to fearmongering and misinformation among the general population. Conversely, if there is a lack of coverage on important issues related to cannabis legalization or research, it can create gaps in knowledge and understanding.


Overall, it is important for media outlets to be responsible in their reporting on cannabis news and present a balanced view that reflects the complexities of this topic. By providing accurate information and diverse perspectives, the media can help educate the public and foster informed discussions about cannabis use and its social impact. Ultimately, media coverage has the power to influence public opinion on cannabis in significant ways, making it crucial for journalists to approach this topic with integrity and diligence.

 

Cannabis
Temporal range: Early Miocene – Present 19.6–0 Ma
 
 
 
 
Common hemp
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Cannabaceae
Genus: Cannabis
L.
Species[1]

Cannabis (/ˈkænÉ™bɪs/ ⓘ)[2] is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae that is widely accepted as being indigenous to and originating from the continent of Asia.[3][4][5] However, the number of species is disputed, with as many as three species being recognized: Cannabis sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis. Alternatively, C. ruderalis may be included within C. sativa, or all three may be treated as subspecies of C. sativa,[1][6][7][8] or C. sativa may be accepted as a single undivided species.[9]

The plant is also known as hemp, although this term is usually used to refer only to varieties cultivated for non-drug use. Hemp has long been used for fibre, seeds and their oils, leaves for use as vegetables, and juice. Industrial hemp textile products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fibre.

Cannabis also has a long history of being used for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug known by several slang terms, such as marijuana, pot or weed. Various cannabis strains have been bred, often selectively to produce high or low levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a cannabinoid and the plant's principal psychoactive constituent. Compounds such as hashish and hash oil are extracted from the plant.[10] More recently, there has been interest in other cannabinoids like cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabinol (CBN).

Etymology

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Cannabis is a Scythian word.[11][12][13] The ancient Greeks learned of the use of cannabis by observing Scythian funerals, during which cannabis was consumed.[12] In Akkadian, cannabis was known as qunubu (𐎯𐎫𐎠𐎭𐏂).[12] The word was adopted in to the Hebrew language as qaneh bosem (קָנֶה בֹּשׂם).[12]

Description

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Cannabis growing as weeds at the foot of Dhaulagiri, Nepal
A thicket of wild cannabis in Islamabad, Pakistan

Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets.[14] The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.

The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern (which varies slightly among varieties) that allows for easy identification of Cannabis leaves from unrelated species with similar leaves. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip, but in Cannabis this originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of the second notch down. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will pass tangentially to the notch, but often will pass by at a small distance; when the latter happens a spur vein (or occasionally two) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. Tiny samples of Cannabis also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, requiring special equipment and expertise.[15]

Reproduction

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All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated[16] and the fruit is an achene.[17] Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants,[16] with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be day-neutral.

Cannabis is predominantly dioecious,[16][18] having imperfect flowers, with staminate "male" and pistillate "female" flowers occurring on separate plants.[19] "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious",[20] and the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi 枲 "male Cannabis" and fu 莩 (or ju 苴) "female Cannabis".[21] Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes.[22]

Many monoecious varieties have also been described,[23] in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers.[24] (Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites", true hermaphrodites – which are less common in Cannabis – bear staminate and pistillate structures together on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant.) Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.[25][26][27] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[28][29][30]

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[31] Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the fruits (produced by female flowers) are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops,[25] but sativa strains often produce monoecious individuals, which is possibly as a result of inbreeding.

Cannabis female flower with visible trichomes
Male Cannabis flower buds

Sex determination

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Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants.[31] Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.

Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present.[29] At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.[32] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,[33] and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.[30]

Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants.[18] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.[34]

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".[18]

The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX.[35] According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996.[36] Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.[37]

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[38][39] have used random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and amplified fragment length polymorphism.[40][28][41] Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,

It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination.[18]

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.[42] Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors.[30] Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects.[18] It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.[43] A polymerase chain reaction-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.[44]

Chemistry

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Cannabis plants produce a large number of chemicals as part of their defense against herbivory. One group of these is called cannabinoids, which induce mental and physical effects when consumed.

Cannabinoids, terpenes, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.[46]

Genetics

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Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced.[47] The first genome sequence of Cannabis, which is estimated to be 820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists.[48]

Taxonomy

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Underside of Cannabis sativa leaf, showing diagnostic venation

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the nettle family (Urticaceae) or mulberry family (Moraceae), and later, along with the genus Humulus (hops), in a separate family, the hemp family (Cannabaceae sensu stricto).[49] Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the former family Celtidaceae, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic family, the Cannabaceae sensu lato.[50][51]

Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:[52]

  • plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
  • plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
  • escaped, hybridised, or wild forms of either of the above types.

Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the "high" which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant,[53] and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant.[54] The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive.[55] Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype", based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.[56] Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.[40] Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermediate amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.[56][57]

Top of Cannabis plant in vegetative growth stage

Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species.[58] One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."[59] Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.[59] Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.[47] However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.[60] It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.[61][62][63]

Early classifications

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Relative size of varieties of Cannabis

The genus Cannabis was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.[64] He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L.[a 1] Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. This classification was supported by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (in 1807), Lindley (in 1838) and De Candollee (in 1867). These first classification attempts resulted in a four group division:[65]

  • Kif (southern hemp - psychoactive)
  • Vulgaris (intermediate - psychoactive and fiber)
  • Pedemontana (northern hemp - fiber)
  • Chinensis (northern hemp - fiber)

In 1785, evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam.[66] Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on morphological aspects (trichomes, leaf shape) and geographic localization of plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Also, C. indica was considered smaller, by Lamarck. Also, woodier stems, alternate ramifications of the branches, narrow leaflets, and a villous calyx in the female flowers were characteristics noted by the botanist.[65]

In 1843, William O’Shaughnessy, used "Indian hemp (C. indica)" in a work title. The author claimed that this choice wasn't based on a clear distinction between C. sativa and C. indica, but may have been influenced by the choice to use the term "Indian hemp" (linked to the plant's history in India), hence naming the species as indica.[65]

Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin.[67] However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept (monotypic classification) was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union, where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.[68]

20th century

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Cannabis ruderalis

In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch, and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch, as alternative names.[52] In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.[57][67] Vavilov, in 1931, proposed a three species system, independently reinforced by Schultes et al (1975)[69] and Emboden (1974):[70] C. sativa, C. indica and C. ruderalis.[65]

In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex poly-species classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.[52][71][72] Zhukovski, in 1950, also proposed a two-species system, but with C. sativa L. and C. ruderalis.[73]

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.[61][62] The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.[74]

Three theories of classification for Cannabis. From left to right, monotypic with three subspecies (A), polytypic consisting of up to three species (B), and single phenotypically diverse species (C).

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small[75] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies (hemp or drug; based on THC and CBD levels) and two varieties in each (domesticated or wild). The framework is thus:

  • C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production.
    • C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. sativa, domesticated variety.
    • C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav., wild or escaped variety.
  • C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.,[67] primarily selected for drug production.
    • C. sativa L. subsp. indica var. indica, domesticated variety.
    • C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq, wild or escaped variety.

This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.[56][67][76]

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis.[77][78][79][80] For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species.[81] According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in Central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" strains from wide-leafed "indica" strains.[82] McPartland's review finds the Schultes taxonomy inconsistent with prior work (protologs) and partly responsible for the popular usage.[83]

Continuing research

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Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes.[84][85][28][86][87] Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.[40] They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus consists of a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.

An investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in Cannabis germplasm. The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis. C. sativa contains fiber and seed landraces, and feral populations, derived from Europe, Central Asia, and Turkey. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica.[57] In 2005, a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions led to a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis.[60] Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.[88]

A 2020 analysis of single-nucleotide polymorphisms reports five clusters of cannabis, roughly corresponding to hemps (including folk "Ruderalis") folk "Indica" and folk "Sativa".[89]

Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. One laboratory at the University of British Columbia found that Jamaican Lamb's Bread, claimed to be 100% sativa, was in fact almost 100% indica (the opposite strain).[90] Legalization of cannabis in Canada (as of 17 October 2018) may help spur private-sector research, especially in terms of diversification of strains. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government (Health Canada) oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. Furthermore, the rise of craft cannabis growers in Canada should ensure quality, experimentation/research, and diversification of strains among private-sector producers.[91]

[edit]

The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia.[83]

Mapping the morphological concepts to scientific names in the Small 1976 framework, "Sativa" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica, "Indica" generally refers to C. sativa subsp. i. kafiristanica (also known as afghanica), and "Ruderalis", being lower in THC, is the one that can fall into C. sativa subsp. sativa. The three names fit in Schultes's framework better, if one overlooks its inconsistencies with prior work.[83] Definitions of the three terms using factors other than morphology produces different, often conflicting results.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica", "mostly indica", "indica/sativa", "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa". These categories are highly arbitrary, however: one "AK-47" hybrid strain has received both "Best Sativa" and "Best Indica" awards.[83]

Phylogeny

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Cannabis likely split from its closest relative, Humulus (hops), during the mid Oligocene, around 27.8 million years ago according to molecular clock estimates. The centre of origin of Cannabis is likely in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. The pollen of Humulus and Cannabis are very similar and difficult to distinguish. The oldest pollen thought to be from Cannabis is from Ningxia, China, on the boundary between the Tibetan Plateau and the Loess Plateau, dating to the early Miocene, around 19.6 million years ago. Cannabis was widely distributed over Asia by the Late Pleistocene. The oldest known Cannabis in South Asia dates to around 32,000 years ago.[92]

Uses

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Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes.

History

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According to genetic and archaeological evidence, cannabis was first domesticated about 12,000 years ago in East Asia during the early Neolithic period.[5] The use of cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa.[93] The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian Herodotus's reference to the central Eurasian Scythians taking cannabis steam baths.[94] His Histories (c. 440 BCE) records, "The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Greek vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy."[95]

In China, the psychoactive properties of cannabis are described in the Shennong Bencaojing (3rd century AD).[96] Cannabis smoke was inhaled by Daoists, who burned it in incense burners.[96]

In the Middle East, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545, cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, cloth and paper.[97][98][99][100]

Cannabinol (CBN) was the first compound to be isolated from cannabis extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940, followed by some of the first preclinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds in vivo.[101]

Globally, in 2013, 60,400 kilograms of cannabis were produced legally.[102]

Recreational use

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Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs[103]
A dried bud, typical of what is sold for recreational use

Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. In the U.S. alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year.[when?][104] As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried marijuana, hashish, or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil.[10]

Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer.[105] However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.

Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no intoxicating effects by itself[55] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[106] is thought to reduce the anxiety-inducing effects of high doses of THC,[107] particularly if administered orally prior to THC exposure.[108]

According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol.[109] However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia,[105] and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise.[110][111] Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are not life-threatening.[112] Risk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with practical regulation measures.[113]

In 2014 there were an estimated 182.5 million cannabis users worldwide (3.8% of the global population aged 15–64).[114] This percentage did not change significantly between 1998 and 2014.[114]

Medical use

[edit]

Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms.[115][116] Cannabinoids are under preliminary research for their potential to affect stroke.[117] Evidence is lacking for depression, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, and psychosis.[118] Two extracts of cannabis – dronabinol and nabilone – are approved by the FDA as medications in pill form for treating the side effects of chemotherapy and AIDS.[119]

Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects.[116] Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations.[116] Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear.[120] Concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident.[115]

Industrial use (hemp)

[edit]
Cannabis sativa stem longitudinal section

The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis plant stem (stalk). Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound (THC) concentrations in products labeled as hemp.

Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre[121] ranging from paper, cordage, construction material[122][123] and textiles in general, to clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton. It also is a useful source of foodstuffs (hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil) and biofuels. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) during the last 12,000 years.[121][124] In modern times novel applications and improvements have been explored with modest commercial success.[125][126]

In the US, "industrial hemp" is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the 2018 Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp.[127]

Ancient and religious uses

[edit]
Cannabis Museum in Amsterdam
Cannabis leaf pictured in the coat of arms of Kanepi Parish

The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures.[128] The Yanghai Tombs, a vast ancient cemetery (54 000 m2) situated in the Turfan district of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwest China, have revealed the 2700-year-old grave of a shaman. He is thought to have belonged to the Jushi culture recorded in the area centuries later in the Hanshu, Chap 96B.[129] Near the head and foot of the shaman was a large leather basket and wooden bowl filled with 789g of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. An international team demonstrated that this material contained THC. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent.[130] The earliest evidence of cannabis smoking has been found in the 2,500-year-old tombs of Jirzankal Cemetery in the Pamir Mountains in Western China, where cannabis residue were found in burners with charred pebbles possibly used during funeral rituals.[131][132]

Settlements which date from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the Bactria and Margiana contained elaborate ritual structures with rooms containing everything needed for making drinks containing extracts from poppy (opium), hemp (cannabis), and ephedra (which contains ephedrine).[133]: 262  Although there is no evidence of ephedra being used by steppe tribes, they engaged in cultic use of hemp. Cultic use ranged from Romania to the Yenisei River and had begun by 3rd millennium BC Smoking hemp has been found at Pazyryk.[133]: 306 

Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as "food of the gods".[134] Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi. One of the earliest to use this plant in medical purposes was Korakkar, one of the 18 Siddhas.[135][136][self-published source?] The plant is called Korakkar Mooli in the Tamil language, meaning Korakkar's herb.[137][138]

In Buddhism, cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya.[139][140] An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis.[141]

In modern times, the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament.[142] Elders of the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church, a religious movement founded in the U.S. in 1975 with no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church, consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ.[143] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life.[144][145] Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,[146] Cantheism,[147] the Cannabis Assembly[148] and the Church of Cognizance.

Since the 13th century CE, cannabis has been used among Sufis[149][150] – the mystical interpretation of Islam that exerts strong influence over local Muslim practices in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Turkey, and Pakistan. Cannabis preparations are frequently used at Sufi festivals in those countries.[149] Pakistan's Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh province is particularly renowned for the widespread use of cannabis at the shrine's celebrations, especially its annual Urs festival and Thursday evening dhamaal sessions – or meditative dancing sessions.[151][152]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ "L." stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species

References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]

 

 

Denver is located in Colorado
Denver
Denver
 
Denver
 
Official logo of Denver
Nicknames: 
The Mile High City[2]
Queen City of the Plains[3]
Wall Street of the West[4]
Map
Map
Map
Denver is located in the United States
Denver
Denver
 

Coordinates: 39°44′21″N 104°59′06″W / 39.7392°N 104.9849°W / 39.7392; -104.9849 (City and County of Denver, Colorado)[5]Country United StatesState ColoradoCity and county Denver[1]PlattedNovember 17, 1858; 166 years ago (1858-11-17), as
Denver City, Kansas Territory[6]IncorporatedNovember 7, 1861; 163 years ago (1861-11-07), as
Denver City, Colorado Territory[7]ConsolidatedDecember 1, 1902; 122 years ago (1902-12-01), as the
City and County of Denver[8][9]Named afterJames W. DenverGovernment

 

 • TypeConsolidated city and county[10] • BodyDenver City Council • MayorMike Johnston (D)[11]Area

 • Total

154.726 sq mi (400.739 km2) • Land153.075 sq mi (396.463 km2) • Water1.651 sq mi (4.276 km2) • Metro

 

8,403.00 sq mi (21,763.67 km2)Elevation

5,280 ft (1,610 m)Highest elevation

5,680 ft (1,730 m)Lowest elevation

5,130 ft (1,560 m)Population

 • Total

715,522

 • Estimate 
(2024)[16]

729,019 Increase • Rank58th in North America
19th in the United States
1st in Colorado • Density4,674/sq mi (1,805/km2) • Urban

2,686,147 (US: 18th) • Urban density4,167.5/sq mi (1,609.1/km2) • Metro

2,963,821 (US: 19th) • CSA

3,623,560 (US: 17th) • Front Range

 

5,055,344DemonymDenveriteGDP

 • Total$118.569 billion (2023) • Metro$311.876 billion (2023)Time zoneUTC−07:00 (MST) • Summer (DST)UTC−06:00 (MDT)ZIP Codes

80012, 80014, 80022, 80033, 80123, 80201–80212, 80214–80239, 80241, 80243–80244, 80246–80252, 80256–80257, 80259-80261, 80263-80266, 80271, 80273–80274, 80279–80281, 80290–80291, 80293–80295, 80299[22]

Area codes303/720/983FIPS code08-20000GNIS feature ID201738[23]Websitewww.denvergov.org

Capital and most populous city of the State of Colorado

Denver (/ˈdɛnvər/ ⓘ DEN-vər) is a consolidated city and county, the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. It is located in the Western United States, in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains.[10] With a population of 715,522 as of the 2020 census,[24] a 19.22% increase since 2010,[12] Denver is the 19th most populous city in the United States and the fifth most populous state capital. Denver is the principal city of the Denver Metropolitan area (which includes over 3 million people), as well as the economic and cultural center of the broader Front Range, home to more than 5 million people.

Denver's downtown district lies about 12 miles (19 kilometers) east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Named after James W. Denver, the governor of the Kansas Territory at the time, Denver was founded at the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River in 1858 during the Gold Rush era. Nicknamed the "Mile High City" because its official elevation is exactly one mile (5280 feet or 1609.344 meters) above sea level, Denver grew beyond its prospecting origins to become the principal commercial and transportation hub for a broad region spanning the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain West.[a][25] The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone, passes directly through Denver Union Station.

As the most populous metropolitan area in a 560-mile (900 km) radius, Denver is a major cultural hub with a variety of museums and cultural institutions, including the Denver Performing Arts Complex and Denver Art Museum. Denver also has sports teams in all five major professional leagues. While the 10-county Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 2,963,821 and the 12-county Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a population of 3,623,560 at the 2020 United States census, Denver functions as the principal city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, an oblong urban region stretching across Colorado and Wyoming with a population of 5,055,344 at the 2020 U.S. census.[12] Regarded for its sunny weather and access to nature, Denver was named the best place to live in the United States by U.S. News & World Report in 2016.[26]

History

[edit]
Former Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver visited his namesake city in 1875 and in 1882.
The "Bronco Buster", a variation of Frederic Remington's "Bronco Buster" Western sculpture at the Denver capitol grounds, a gift from J.K. Mullen in 1920

The greater Denver area was inhabited by several Indigenous peoples such as Apaches, Utes, Cheyennes, Comanches, and Arapahoes.[27] By the terms of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie between the United States and various tribes including the Cheyenne and Arapaho,[28] the United States unilaterally defined and recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho territory as ranging from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado and Kansas. This definition specifically encompasses the land of modern Metropolitan Denver. But the discovery in November 1858 of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado[29] (then part of the western Kansas Territory)[30] brought on a gold rush and a consequent flood of white immigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands.[29] Colorado territorial officials pressured federal authorities to redefine and reduce the extent of Indian treaty lands.[30]

In the summer of 1858, during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush, a group of gold prospectors from Lawrence, Kansas, established Montana City as a mining town on the banks of the South Platte River in what was then western Kansas Territory, on traditional lands of Cheyenne and Arapaho. This was the first historical settlement in what later became the city of Denver. But the site faded quickly, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria (named after the gold-mining town of Auraria, Georgia) and St. Charles City.[31]

On November 22, 1858,[contradictory] General William Larimer and Captain Jonathan Cox, both land speculators from eastern Kansas Territory, placed cottonwood logs to stake a claim on the bluff overlooking the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek, across the creek from the existing mining settlement of Auraria, and on the site of the existing townsite of St. Charles. Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver.[32] Larimer hoped the town's name would help it be selected as the county seat of Arapahoe County, but unbeknownst to him, Governor Denver had already resigned from office. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The site of these first towns is now occupied by Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Edward W. Wynkoop came to Colorado in 1859 and became one of the city's founders. Wynkoop Street in Denver is named after him.[33][34]

Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new immigrants. Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock, and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria.[32] In May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pike's Peak Express in order to secure the region's first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for "passengers, mail, freight, and gold", the Express reached Denver on a trail that trimmed westward travel time from twelve days to six. In 1863, Western Union furthered Denver's dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus.

On February 18, 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the Treaty of Fort Wise with the United States[35] at Bent's New Fort at Big Timbers near what is now Lamar, Colorado. They ceded more than 90 percent of the lands designated for them by the Fort Laramie Treaty, including the area of modern Denver.[30] Some Cheyennes opposed to the treaty, saying that it had been signed by a small minority of the chiefs without the consent or approval of the rest of the tribe, that the signatories had not understood what they signed, and that they had been bribed to sign by a large distribution of gifts. The territorial government of Colorado, however, claimed the treaty was a "solemn obligation" and considered that those Indians who refused to abide by it were hostile and planning a war.[36]

Ten days later, on February 28, 1861, the Colorado Territory was created,[37] Arapahoe County was formed on November 1, 1861,[37] and Denver City was incorporated on November 7, 1861.[38] Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902.[39] In 1867, Denver City became the acting territorial capital, and in 1881 was chosen as the permanent state capital in a statewide ballot. With its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver.[39] On August 1, 1876, Colorado was admitted to the Union.

This disagreement on the validity of Treaty of Fort Wise escalated to bring about the Colorado War of 1864 and 1865, during which the brutal Sand Creek massacre against Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples occurred. The aftermath of the war was the dissolution of the reservation in Eastern Colorado, the signing of Medicine Lodge Treaty which stipulated that the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples would be relocated outside of their traditional territory. This treaty term was achieved, even though the treaty was not legally ratified by the tribal members, as per the treaty's own terms. Thus, by the end of 1860s, this effectively and completely cleared the Denver area of its indigenous inhabitants.[30][40]

"Pioneer Mothers of Colorado" statue at The Denver Post building

Although by the close of the 1860s Denver residents could look with pride at their success establishing a vibrant supply and service center, the decision to route the nation's first transcontinental railroad through Cheyenne City, rather than Denver, threatened the prosperity of the young town. The transcontinental railroad passed a daunting 100 miles (160 kilometers) away, but citizens mobilized to build a railroad to connect Denver to it. Spearheaded by visionary leaders, including Territorial Governor John Evans, David Moffat, and Walter Cheesman, fundraising began. Within three days, $300,000 had been raised, and citizens were optimistic. Fundraising stalled before enough was raised, forcing these visionary leaders to take control of the debt-ridden railroad. Despite challenges, on June 24, 1870, citizens cheered as the Denver Pacific completed the link to the transcontinental railroad, ushering in a new age of prosperity for Denver.[41]

Finally linked to the rest of the nation by rail, Denver prospered as a service and supply center. The young city grew during these years, attracting millionaires with their mansions, as well as a mixture of crime and poverty of a rapidly growing city. Denver citizens were proud when the rich chose Denver and were thrilled when Horace Tabor, the Leadville mining millionaire, built a business block at 16th and Larimer, as well as the elegant Tabor Grand Opera House. Luxurious hotels, including the much-loved Brown Palace Hotel, soon followed, as well as splendid homes for millionaires, such as the Croke, Patterson, Campbell Mansion at 11th and Pennsylvania and the now-demolished Moffat Mansion at 8th and Grant.[42] Intent on transforming Denver into one of the world's great cities, leaders wooed industry and attracted laborers to work in these factories.

Soon, in addition to the elite and a large middle class, Denver had a growing population of immigrant German, Italian, and Chinese laborers, soon followed by African Americans from the Deep South and Hispanic workers. The influx of the new residents strained available housing. In addition, the Silver Crash of 1893 unsettled political, social, and economic balances. Competition among the different ethnic groups was often expressed as bigotry, and social tensions gave rise to the Red Scare. Americans were suspicious of immigrants, who were sometimes allied with socialist and labor union causes. After World War I, a revival of the Ku Klux Klan attracted white, native-born Americans who were anxious about the many changes in society. Unlike the earlier organization that was active in the rural South, KKK chapters developed in urban areas of the Midwest and West, including Denver, and into Idaho and Oregon. Corruption and crime also developed in Denver.[43]

 
Panoramic print of Denver, 1898

Between 1880 and 1895, the city underwent a huge rise in corruption, as crime bosses, such as Soapy Smith, worked side by side with elected officials and the police to control elections, gambling, and bunco gangs.[44] The city also suffered a depression in 1893 after the crash of silver prices. In 1887, the precursor to the international charity United Way was formed in Denver by local religious leaders, who raised funds and coordinated various charities to help Denver's poor.[45] By 1890, Denver had grown to be the second-largest city west of Omaha, Nebraska.[46] In 1900, whites represented 96.8% of Denver's population.[47] The African American and Hispanic populations increased with migrations of the 20th century. Many African Americans first came as workers on the railroad, which had a terminus in Denver, and began to settle there.

Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed and thrived.[48][49] This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush.[50]

A bill proposing a state constitutional amendment to allow home rule for Denver and other municipalities was introduced in the legislature in 1901 and passed. The measure called for a statewide referendum, which voters approved in 1902. On December 1 that year, Governor James Orman proclaimed the amendment part of the state's fundamental law. The City and County of Denver came into being on that date and was separated from Arapahoe and Adams counties.[8][9][51]

From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a DOE nuclear weapon facility that was about 15 miles from Denver, produced fissile plutonium "pits" for nuclear warheads. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years.[52] A 1981 study by the Jefferson County health director, Carl Johnson, linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. Later studies confirmed many of his findings.[53][54] Plutonium contamination was still present outside the former plant site as of August 2010.[55] It presents risks to building the envisioned Jefferson Parkway,[56] which would complete Denver's automotive beltway.

Downtown Denver cityscape, 1964. Includes Denver's oldest church (Trinity United Methodist), first building of the Mile High Center complex, Lincoln Center, old brownstone part of the Brown Palace Hotel, and Cosmopolitan Hotel – since demolished.

In 1970, Denver was selected to host the 1976 Winter Olympics to coincide with Colorado's centennial celebration, but in November 1972, Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games. They were moved to Innsbruck, Austria.[57] The notoriety of being the only city ever to decline to host an Olympiad after being selected has made subsequent bids difficult. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by State Representative Richard Lamm. He was subsequently elected to three terms (1975–87) as Colorado governor.[58] Denver explored a potential bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics,[59] but no bid was submitted.[60]

In 2010, Denver adopted a comprehensive update of its zoning code,[61] which was developed to guide development as envisioned in adopted plans such as Blueprint Denver,[62] Transit Oriented Development Strategic Plan, Greenprint Denver, and the Strategic Transportation Plan.

Denver has hosted the Democratic National Convention twice, in 1908 and 2008. It promoted the city on the national, political, and socioeconomic stage.[63] On August 10–15, 1993, Denver hosted the Catholic Church's 6th World Youth Day, which was attended by an estimated 500,000, making it the largest gathering in Colorado history.

In 2015, a new commuter railway system commenced operations in the Denver metropolitan area with a network operation of 25 kV 60 Hz.

Denver has been known historically as the Queen City of the Plains and the Queen City of the West, because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the High Plains region in eastern Colorado and along the foothills of the Colorado Front Range.

Geography

[edit]
 
Panorama of Denver seen in August 2015 from the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. Snow-capped Mount Blue Sky (formerly Mt. Evans) can be seen to the left beyond the city skyline.
Central Downtown Denver
Denver and nearby mountains as seen from the rooftops of the Cherry Creek neighborhood

Denver is in the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor, between the Rocky Mountains to the west and the High Plains to the east. Its topography consists of plains in the city center with hilly areas to the north, west, and south. It is the only state capital in the United States that is a consolidated city-county. At the 2020 United States census, the City and County of Denver had an area of 99,025 acres (400.739 km2), including 1,057 acres (4.276 km2) of water.[12] The City and County of Denver is surrounded by three other counties: Adams County to the north and east, Arapahoe County to the south and east, and Jefferson County to the west.

Denver's nickname is the "Mile-High City", as its official elevation is one mile (5,280 ft; 1,609 m) above sea level, defined by the elevation of the spot of a benchmark on the steps of the State Capitol building. The elevation of the entire city ranges from 5,130 to 5,690 feet (1,560 to 1,730 m).

Neighborhoods

[edit]
Denver's 78 official neighborhoods

The City and County of Denver has 78 official neighborhoods used for planning and administration.[64] The system of neighborhood boundaries and names dates to 1970 when city planners divided the city into 73 groups of one to four census tracts, called "statistical neighborhoods," most of which are unchanged since then.[65]

Unlike some other cities, such as Chicago, Denver does not have official larger area designations. Colloquially, names such as Northside and Westside are still in use, but not well-known.[66][67] Community planners have recently been using a set of 19 larger areas, all of which are groups of statistical neighborhoods, as part of the Area Planning process.[68]

Construction along Cherokee Street in the Golden Triangle neighborhood

Denver also has a number of colloquial neighborhood names and boundaries reflecting how people in an area, or others such as community groups and real estate developers, have defined areas. Well-known non-administrative neighborhoods include the historic and trendy LoDo (short for "Lower Downtown"), part of the city's Union Station neighborhood; Uptown, straddling North Capitol Hill and City Park West; Curtis Park and RiNo ("River North"), both part of the Five Points neighborhood; Alamo Placita, the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; Park Hill, a successful example of intentional racial integration;[69] and Golden Triangle, in the Civic Center.

One of Denver's newer neighborhoods was built on the site of Stapleton International Airport, named after former Denver mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton, a member of the Ku Klux Klan.[70] In 2020, the neighborhood's community association voted to change the name from Stapleton to Central Park[71] (see more in Politics section below). The Central Park neighborhood itself has 12 "neighborhoods" within its boundaries.[72]

Adjacent counties, municipalities and census-designated places

[edit]
  North: Adams County, Berkley, Northglenn, Commerce City  
West: Jefferson County, Arvada, Wheat Ridge, Lakeside, Mountain View, Edgewater, Lakewood, Dakota Ridge Denver
Enclave: Arapahoe County, Glendale, Holly Hills
Adams County
East: Aurora
Arapahoe County
  South: Arapahoe County, Bow Mar, Littleton, Sheridan, Englewood, Cherry Hills Village, Greenwood Village, Aurora  

Climate

[edit]
Denver
Climate chart (explanation)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
0.4
 
 
45
19
 
 
0.4
 
 
46
20
 
 
0.9
 
 
56
28
 
 
1.7
 
 
62
34
 
 
2.2
 
 
71
44
 
 
1.9
 
 
83
53
 
 
2.1
 
 
90
60
 
 
1.6
 
 
88
58
 
 
1.4
 
 
80
50
 
 
1
 
 
65
37
 
 
0.6
 
 
53
26
 
 
0.4
 
 
44
18
â–ˆ Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
â–ˆ Precipitation totals in inches
Metric conversion
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
 
 
10
 
 
7
−7
 
 
10
 
 
8
−7
 
 
23
 
 
13
−2
 
 
43
 
 
17
1
 
 
56
 
 
22
7
 
 
48
 
 
28
12
 
 
53
 
 
32
16
 
 
41
 
 
31
14
 
 
36
 
 
27
10
 
 
25
 
 
18
3
 
 
15
 
 
12
−3
 
 
10
 
 
7
−8
â–ˆ Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
â–ˆ Precipitation totals in mm

Denver features a continental semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk, Trewartha: BSao) with generally low humidity and around 3,100 hours of sunshine per year, although humid microclimates can be found nearby depending on exact location.[73][74] It has four distinct seasons and receives most of its precipitation from April through August. Due to its inland location on the High Plains, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the region can be subject to sudden changes in weather.[75]

July is the warmest month, with an average high temperature of 89.9 °F (32.2 °C).[76] Summers range from warm to hot with occasional, sometimes severe, afternoon thunderstorms and high temperatures reaching 90 °F (32 °C) on 38 days annually, and occasionally 100 °F (38 °C). December, the coldest month of the year, has an average daily high temperature of 44 °F (6.7 °C). Winters consist of periods of snow and very low temperatures alternating with periods of milder weather due to the warming effect of Chinook winds. In winter, daytime highs occasionally exceed 60 °F (16 °C), but they also often fail to reach 32 °F (0 °C) during periods of cold weather. Occasionally, daytime highs can even fail to rise above 0 °F (−18 °C) due to arctic air masses.[77] On the coldest nights of the year, lows can fall to −10 °F (−23 °C) or below, with the city experiencing a low of −24 °F (−31 °C) on December 22, 2022, with a wind chill of −40 °F (−40 °C).[78] Snowfall is common throughout the late fall, winter and early spring, averaging 53.5 inches (136 cm) for 1981–2010;[79] but in the 2021 winter season, Denver began the month of December without any snowfall for the first time in history.[80] The average window for measurable (≥0.1 in or 0.25 cm) snow is October 17 through April 27; however, measurable snowfall has occurred as early as September 4 and as late as June 3.[81] Extremes in temperature range from −29 °F (−34 °C) on January 9, 1875, up to 105 °F (41 °C) as recently as June 28, 2018.[82] Due to the city's high elevation and aridity, diurnal temperature variation is large throughout the year.

Tornadoes are rare west of the I-25 corridor; one notable exception was an F3 tornado that struck 4.4 miles (7.1 km) south of downtown on June 15, 1988. On the other hand, the suburbs east of Denver and the city's east-northeastern extension (Denver International Airport) can see a few tornadoes, often weak landspout tornadoes, each spring and summer, especially during June, with the enhancement of the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone (DCVZ). The DCVZ, also known as the Denver Cyclone, is a variable vortex of storm-forming air flow usually found north and east of downtown, and which often includes the airport.[83][84] Heavy weather from the DCVZ can disrupt airport operations.[85][86] In a study looking at hail events in areas with a population of at least 50,000, Denver was found to be ranked 10th most prone to hail storms in the continental United States.[87] In fact, Denver has had three of the top 10 costliest hailstorms in U.S. history, on July 11, 1990; July 20, 2009; and May 8, 2017.

Based on 30-year averages obtained from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center for the months of December, January and February, Weather Channel ranked Denver the 18th-coldest major U.S. city as of 2014.[88]

Denver's official weather station is at Denver International Airport, roughly 20 miles (32 km) from downtown. A 2019 analysis showed the average temperature at Denver International Airport, 50.2 °F (10 °C), was significantly cooler than downtown, 53.0 °F (12 °C). Many of the suburbs also have warmer temperatures and there is controversy regarding the location of the official temperature readings.[89]

 
View of downtown Denver after a snowstorm in March 2016, looking northwest from Cheesman Park
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °F (°C) 76
(24)
80
(27)
84
(29)
90
(32)
95
(35)
105
(41)
105
(41)
105
(41)
101
(38)
90
(32)
81
(27)
79
(26)
105
(41)
Mean maximum °F (°C) 65.0
(18.3)
67.1
(19.5)
74.7
(23.7)
80.8
(27.1)
88.3
(31.3)
96.5
(35.8)
99.6
(37.6)
96.9
(36.1)
92.9
(33.8)
84.1
(28.9)
73.6
(23.1)
65.3
(18.5)
100.6
(38.1)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 44.6
(7.0)
45.7
(7.6)
55.7
(13.2)
61.7
(16.5)
71.2
(21.8)
83.4
(28.6)
89.9
(32.2)
87.5
(30.8)
79.6
(26.4)
65.3
(18.5)
52.9
(11.6)
44.0
(6.7)
65.1
(18.4)
Daily mean °F (°C) 31.7
(−0.2)
32.7
(0.4)
41.6
(5.3)
47.8
(8.8)
57.4
(14.1)
68.2
(20.1)
75.1
(23.9)
72.9
(22.7)
64.8
(18.2)
51.1
(10.6)
39.4
(4.1)
31.2
(−0.4)
51.2
(10.6)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 18.7
(−7.4)
19.7
(−6.8)
27.5
(−2.5)
33.9
(1.1)
43.6
(6.4)
53.0
(11.7)
60.2
(15.7)
58.3
(14.6)
50.0
(10.0)
37.0
(2.8)
26.0
(−3.3)
18.4
(−7.6)
37.2
(2.9)
Mean minimum °F (°C) −3.8
(−19.9)
−1.5
(−18.6)
9.5
(−12.5)
19.8
(−6.8)
30.2
(−1.0)
41.9
(5.5)
51.4
(10.8)
48.8
(9.3)
35.9
(2.2)
19.6
(−6.9)
5.4
(−14.8)
−3.4
(−19.7)
−11.0
(−23.9)
Record low °F (°C) −29
(−34)
−25
(−32)
−11
(−24)
−2
(−19)
19
(−7)
30
(−1)
42
(6)
40
(4)
17
(−8)
−2
(−19)
−18
(−28)
−25
(−32)
−29
(−34)
Average precipitation inches (mm) 0.38
(9.7)
0.41
(10)
0.86
(22)
1.68
(43)
2.16
(55)
1.94
(49)
2.14
(54)
1.58
(40)
1.35
(34)
0.99
(25)
0.64
(16)
0.35
(8.9)
14.48
(368)
Average snowfall inches (cm) 6.4
(16)
7.6
(19)
8.8
(22)
6.2
(16)
1.4
(3.6)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.8
(2.0)
3.9
(9.9)
7.3
(19)
6.6
(17)
49.0
(124)
Average extreme snow depth inches (cm) 3.8
(9.7)
4.7
(12)
4.0
(10)
2.2
(5.6)
0.5
(1.3)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.1
(0.25)
2.0
(5.1)
4.1
(10)
5.3
(13)
9.0
(23)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) 4.4 5.5 6.2 9.0 10.4 8.1 8.3 7.5 6.0 5.3 4.6 4.4 79.7
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) 5.0 5.3 4.8 4.1 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.8 4.6 4.6 31.4
Average relative humidity (%) 55.2 55.8 53.7 49.6 51.7 49.3 47.8 49.3 50.1 49.2 56.3 56.6 52.0
Average dew point °F (°C) 12.7
(−10.7)
16.2
(−8.8)
19.9
(−6.7)
26.2
(−3.2)
35.8
(2.1)
43.5
(6.4)
48.4
(9.1)
47.7
(8.7)
39.6
(4.2)
28.6
(−1.9)
21.0
(−6.1)
14.2
(−9.9)
29.5
(−1.4)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 215.3 211.1 255.6 276.2 290.0 315.3 325.0 306.4 272.3 249.2 194.3 195.9 3,106.6
Mean daily daylight hours 9.7 10.7 12.0 13.3 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.7 12.4 11.1 10.0 9.4 12.2
Percentage possible sunshine 72 70 69 69 65 70 71 72 73 72 65 67 70
Average ultraviolet index 2 2 3 3 5 6 6 5 5 3 2 2 4
Source 1: NOAA (sun, relative humidity and dew point 1961−1990)[90][91][92][93][94]
Source 2: Weather Atlas (Daylight-Average UV index)[95]
Climate data for Denver Water Department (elevation 5225 ft), 1991-2020 normals, extremes 1997-present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °F (°C) 77
(25)
78
(26)
85
(29)
91
(33)
99
(37)
107
(42)
108
(42)
104
(40)
102
(39)
90
(32)
84
(29)
76
(24)
108
(42)
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 48.5
(9.2)
49.0
(9.4)
57.9
(14.4)
64.1
(17.8)
73.0
(22.8)
85.3
(29.6)
91.4
(33.0)
89.6
(32.0)
81.6
(27.6)
67.6
(19.8)
55.9
(13.3)
47.3
(8.5)
67.6
(19.8)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 21.3
(−5.9)
21.7
(−5.7)
29.6
(−1.3)
36.2
(2.3)
45.9
(7.7)
55.8
(13.2)
61.8
(16.6)
60.1
(15.6)
50.7
(10.4)
37.7
(3.2)
27.6
(−2.4)
20.6
(−6.3)
39.1
(4.0)
Record low °F (°C) −15
(−26)
−14
(−26)
−2
(−19)
8
(−13)
20
(−7)
36
(2)
49
(9)
40
(4)
22
(−6)
4
(−16)
−8
(−22)
−13
(−25)
−15
(−26)
Average precipitation inches (mm) 0.43
(11)
0.60
(15)
1.13
(29)
1.98
(50)
2.65
(67)
1.73
(44)
1.90
(48)
1.81
(46)
1.20
(30)
1.16
(29)
0.78
(20)
0.48
(12)
15.85
(401)
Average snowfall inches (cm) 5.5
(14)
8.4
(21)
9.2
(23)
5.0
(13)
0.9
(2.3)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
2.5
(6.4)
4.4
(11)
4.8
(12)
40.7
(102.7)
Source: xmACIS2
Climate data for Central Park, Denver, 1991–2020 normals
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °F (°C) 46.5
(8.1)
47.5
(8.6)
56.4
(13.6)
62.5
(16.9)
71.7
(22.1)
84.1
(28.9)
90.2
(32.3)
87.9
(31.1)
80.1
(26.7)
66.7
(19.3)
54.8
(12.7)
45.9
(7.7)
66.2
(19.0)
Mean daily minimum °F (°C) 17.6
(−8.0)
19.3
(−7.1)
27.1
(−2.7)
33.7
(0.9)
43.4
(6.3)
52.9
(11.6)
59.3
(15.2)
57.2
(14.0)
48.2
(9.0)
35.7
(2.1)
25.5
(−3.6)
17.7
(−7.9)
36.5
(2.5)
Average precipitation inches (mm) 0.46
(12)
0.53
(13)
1.12
(28)
1.67
(42)
2.29
(58)
1.68
(43)
2.12
(54)
1.83
(46)
1.51
(38)
0.98
(25)
0.70
(18)
0.47
(12)
15.36
(390)
Average snowfall inches (cm) 6.4
(16)
7.6
(19)
8.8
(22)
6.2
(16)
1.4
(3.6)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0.8
(2.0)
3.9
(9.9)
7.3
(19)
6.6
(17)
49.0
(124)
Source: NOAA[79]
Climate data for Denver
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily daylight hours 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 15.0 14.0 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 12.2
Average Ultraviolet index 2 3 5 7 9 11 11 10 7 5 3 2 6.2

See or edit raw graph data.

Source: Weather Atlas[96]

Demographics

[edit]
Historical population
Census Pop. Note
1860 4,749  
1870 4,759   0.2%
1880 35,629   648.7%
1890 106,713   199.5%
1900 133,859   25.4%
1910 213,381   59.4%
1920 256,491   20.2%
1930 287,861   12.2%
1940 322,412   12.0%
1950 415,765   29.0%
1960 493,887   18.8%
1970 514,678   4.2%
1980 492,686   −4.3%
1990 467,610   −5.1%
2000 554,636   18.6%
2010 600,158   8.2%
2020 715,522   19.2%
2024 (est.) 729,019 [16] 1.9%
U.S. Decennial Census

As of the 2020 census, the population of the City and County of Denver was 715,522, making it the 19th most populous U.S. city.[97] The Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2013 population of 2,697,476 and ranked as the 21st most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area,[98] and the larger Denver–Aurora–Boulder Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2013 population of 3,277,309 and ranked as the 18th most populous U.S. metropolitan area.[98] Denver is the most populous city within a radius centered in the city and of 550-mile (890 km) magnitude.[98] Denverites is a term used for residents of Denver.

Ethnic origins in Denver

According to the 2020 census, the City and County of Denver contained 715,522 people and 301,501 households. The population density was 3,922.6 inhabitants per square mile (1,514.5 inhabitants/km2) including the airport. There were 338.341 housing units at an average density of 1,751 units per square mile (676 units/km2).[99] However, the average density throughout most Denver neighborhoods tends to be higher. Without the 80249 zip code (47.3 sq mi, 8,407 residents) near the airport, the average density increases to around 5,470 per square mile.

Map of racial distribution in Denver, 2010 U.S. Census. Each dot is 25 people: White, Black, Asian, Hispanic, or Other (yellow)
 

2020 census

[edit]

According to the 2020 United States census, the racial composition of Denver was as follows:[102]

Denver, Colorado – Racial and ethnic composition
Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
Race / Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic) Pop 2000[104] Pop 2010[105] Pop 2020[106] % 2000 % 2010 % 2020
White alone (NH) 287,997 313,012 388,764 51.93% 52.15% 54.33%
Black or African American alone (NH) 59,921 58,388 61,098 10.80% 9.73% 8.54%
Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) 3,846 3,525 3,740 0.69% 0.59% 0.52%
Asian alone (NH) 15,137 19,925 27,198 2.73% 3.32% 3.80%
Pacific Islander alone (NH) 473 495 1,395 0.09% 0.08% 0.19%
Other race alone (NH) 975 1,208 3,746 0.18% 0.20% 0.52%
Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) 10,583 12,640 30,121 1.91% 2.11% 4.21%
Hispanic or Latino (any race) 175,704 190,965 199,460 31.68% 31.82% 27.88%
Total 554,636 600,158 715,522 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

Approximately 70.3% of the population (over five years old) spoke only English at home. An additional 23.5% of the population spoke Spanish at home. In terms of ancestry, 31.8% were Hispanic or Latino, 14.6% of the population were of German ancestry, 9.7% were of Irish ancestry, 8.9% were of English ancestry, and 4.0% were of Italian ancestry.

There were 250,906 households, of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% were non-families. 39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27, and the average family size was 3.14.

Age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. Overall there were 102.1 males for every 100 females. Due to a skewed sex ratio wherein single men outnumber single women, some protologists had nicknamed the city as Menver.[107]

The median household income was $45,438, and the median family income was $48,195. Males had a median income of $36,232 versus $33,768 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,101. 19.1% of the population and 14.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 25.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.[108]

Denver has one of the largest populations of Mexican-Americans in the entire United States. Approximately one third of the city is Hispanic, with the overwhelming majority of them being of Mexican descent. Many of them speak Spanish at home.

English, German, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, Chinese, Japanese, Greek, and Russian immigrants immigrated to Denver by the 1920s.[109]

 

Languages

[edit]

As of 2010, 72.28% (386,815) of Denver residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 21.42% (114,635) spoke Spanish, 0.85% (4,550) Vietnamese, 0.57% (3,073) African languages, 0.53% (2,845) Russian, 0.50% (2,681) Chinese, 0.47% (2,527) French, and 0.46% (2,465) German. In total, 27.72% (148,335) of Denver's population aged five and older spoke a language other than English.[110]

 
Panorama of downtown Denver, c. 2006, looking east along Speer Blvd

Longevity

[edit]

According to a report in the Journal of the American Medical Association, residents of Denver had a 2014 life expectancy of 80.02 years.[111]

Economy

[edit]
The 17th street district includes many financial, business and corporate buildings.[112]
The United States Mint in Denver (2010)
Republic Plaza, Colorado's tallest building
Wells Fargo "Cash Register" building
1144 15th St: One of Denver's newest skyscrapers

The Denver MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $311.9 billion in 2023, making it the 18th largest metro economy in the United States.[113] Additionally, the 12-County Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a GDP of $377.7 billion in 2023 while the broader Front Range had a GDP of $474.6 billion.[114] Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the country's major transportation systems. Because Denver is the largest city within 500 miles (800 km), it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the Mountain States, Southwest states, as well as all western states. Another benefit for distribution is that Denver is nearly equidistant from large cities of the Midwest, such as Chicago and St. Louis and some large cities of the West Coast, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco.

Over the years, the city has been home to other large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country. Several well-known companies originated in or have relocated to Denver. William Ainsworth opened the Denver Instrument Company in 1895 to make analytical balances for gold assayers. Its factory is now in Arvada. Aimco is headquartered in Denver. Samsonite began in Denver in 1910 as Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company, but Samsonite closed its NE Denver factory in 2001, and moved its headquarters to Massachusetts after a change of ownership in 2006. Qwest Corporation, founded in Denver in 1911 as Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, is now a part of Lumen Technologies (previously CenturyLink).

On October 31, 1937, Continental Airlines, now United Airlines, moved its headquarters to Stapleton Airport in Denver, Colorado (before United Airlines later moved to its current home in Chicago). Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because Six believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. Continental later moved to Houston from Denver, but merged with United Airlines in 2013. Throughout that time, the company held a large employee base in the Denver area, which is home to the United Airlines Flight Training Center in the Central Park neighborhood. MediaNews Group purchased the Denver Post in 1987; the company is based in Denver. The Gates Corporation, the world's largest producer of automotive belts and hoses, was established in S. Denver in 1919. Russell Stover Candies made its first chocolate candy in Denver in 1923, but moved to Kansas City in 1969. The original Frontier Airlines began operations at Denver's old Stapleton International Airport in 1950; Frontier was reincarnated at DIA in 1994.

Scott's Liquid Gold, Inc., has been making furniture polish in Denver since 1954. Village Inn restaurants began as a single pancake house in Denver in 1958. Big O Tires, LLC, of Centennial opened its first franchise in 1962 in Denver. The Shane Company sold its first diamond jewelry in 1971 in Denver. In 1973 Re/Max made Denver its headquarters. Johns Manville Corp., a manufacturer of insulation and roofing products, relocated its headquarters to Denver from New York in 1972. CH2M Hill, an engineering and construction firm, relocated from Oregon to the Denver Technological Center in 1980. The Ball Corporation sold its glass business in Indiana in the 1990s and moved to suburban Broomfield; Ball has several operations in greater Denver.

Molson Coors Brewing Company established its U.S. headquarters in Denver in 2005, but announced its departure in 2019. Its subsidiary and regional wholesale distributor, Coors Distributing Company, is in NW Denver. The Newmont Mining Corporation, the second-largest gold producer in North America and one of the largest in the world, is headquartered in Denver. MapQuest, an online site for maps, directions and business listings, is headquartered in Denver's LoDo district.

Large Denver-area employers that have headquarters elsewhere include Lockheed Martin Corp., United Airlines, Kroger Co. and Xcel Energy, Inc.

Development in the bustling Union Station section of downtown

Geography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence, with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area. Along with federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects, and more jobs are brought to the city by virtue of its being the capital of the state of Colorado. The Denver area is home to the former nuclear weapons plant Rocky Flats, the Denver Federal Center, Byron G. Rogers Federal Building and United States Courthouse, the Denver Mint, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

In 2005, a $310.7 million expansion of the Colorado Convention Center was completed, doubling its size. The hope was the center's expansion would elevate the city to one of the top 10 cities in the nation for holding a convention.[115]

Denver's position near the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the city's economic success. In the 1970s and early 1980s, the energy crisis in America and resulting high oil prices created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera Dynasty. Denver was built up considerably during this time with the construction of many new downtown skyscrapers. When the price of oil dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, the Denver economy also dropped, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including former mayor and governor John Hickenlooper, a former geologist), and the nation's highest office vacancy rate (30%).[116] The industry has recovered and the region has 700 employed petroleum engineers.[117] Advances in hydraulic fracturing have made the DJ Basin of Colorado into an accessible and lucrative oil play. Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as Ovintiv, Halliburton, Smith International, Rio Tinto Group, Newmont Mining, and Chevron Corporation, headquartered or having significant operations. Denver is in 149th place in terms of the cost of doing business in the United States.[118]

The first Chipotle Mexican Grill, near the campus of the University of Denver

Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC−7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia on the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over one mile (1.6 km) in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a "one-bounce" real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. Qwest Communications now part of CenturyLink, Dish Network Corporation, Starz, DIRECTV, and Comcast are a few of the many telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late 1990s. After a rise in unemployment in the Great Recession, Denver's unemployment rate recovered and had one of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation at 2.6% in November 2016.[119] As of December 2016, the unemployment rate for the Denver–Aurora–Broomfield MSA is 2.6%.[120] The Downtown region has seen increased real estate investment[121][needs update] with the construction of several new skyscrapers from 2010 onward and major development around Denver Union Station.

Denver has also enjoyed success as a pioneer in the fast-casual restaurant industry, with many popular national chain restaurants founded and based in Denver. Quiznos and Smashburger were founded and headquartered in Denver. Qdoba Mexican Grill, Noodles & Company, and Good Times Burgers & Frozen Custard originated in Denver, but have moved their headquarters to the suburbs of Wheat Ridge, Broomfield, and Golden, respectively. Chipotle Mexican Grill was founded in Denver, but moved its headquarters to Newport Beach, California in 2018.

In 2015, Denver ranked No. 1 on Forbes' list of the Best Places for Business and Careers.[122]

In 2024, Denver based Ibotta's initial public offering (IPO) was the largest tech IPO in Colorado's history.[123]

Top employers

[edit]

As of the city's 2023 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[124] Denver's top employers are:

# Employer Number of employees
1 City and County of Denver 13,584
2 Denver Public Schools 12,693
3 State of Colorado Central Payroll 10,686
4 Denver Health & Hospital Authority 9,502
5 United Airlines 7,230
6 CHC Payroll Agent (HCA Health One) 4,592
7 University of Denver 4,548
8 USDA National Finance Center 4,496
9 Southwest Airlines 4,247
10 ADP TotalSource 2,535

Culture

[edit]
Colorado Convention Center

Apollo Hall opened soon after the city's founding in 1859 and staged many plays for eager settlers.[39] In the 1880s Horace Tabor built Denver's first opera house. After the start of the 20th century, city leaders embarked on a city beautification program that created many of the city's parks, parkways, museums, and the Municipal Auditorium, which was home to the 1908 Democratic National Convention and is now known as the Ellie Caulkins Opera House. Denver and the metropolitan areas around it continued to support culture.[citation needed]

In July 1982, Denver hosted the World Theatre Festival[125] at the Denver Center for Performing Arts, which comprised a program of 114 performances of 18 plays, by theatre companies from 13 countries, across 25 days.[126]

In 1988, voters in the Denver Metropolitan Area approved the Scientific and Cultural Facilities Tax (commonly known as SCFD), a 0.1% (1 cent per $10) sales tax that contributes money to various cultural and scientific facilities and organizations throughout the Metro area.[127] The tax was renewed by voters in 1994 and 2004 and allowed the SCFD to operate until 2018.[128] Ballot issue 4B in 2016 won approval 62.8 percent to 37.2 percent, by Denver metro area voters, to extend the SCFD sales tax until 2030.[129]

Denver is home to a wide array of museums.[130] Many are nationally recognized, including a new wing for the Denver Art Museum by architect Daniel Libeskind, the nation's second-largest Performing Arts Center after Lincoln Center in New York City, and bustling neighborhoods such as LoDo, filled with art galleries, restaurants, bars and clubs. That is part of the reason Denver was, in 2006, recognized for the third year in a row as the best city for singles.[131] Its neighborhoods also continue their influx of diverse people and businesses while the city's cultural institutions grow and prosper. The city acquired the estate of abstract expressionist painter Clyfford Still in 2004 and built a museum to exhibit his works near the Denver Art Museum.[132] The Denver Museum of Nature and Science holds an aquamarine specimen valued at over $1 million, as well as specimens of the state mineral, rhodochrosite. Every September the Denver Mart, at 451 E. 58th Avenue, hosts a gem and mineral show.[133] The state history museum, History Colorado Center, opened in April 2012. It features hands-on and interactive exhibits, artifacts and programs about Colorado history.[134] It was named in 2013 by True West Magazine as one of the top-ten "must see" history museums in the country.[135] History Colorado's Byers-Evans House Museum and the Molly Brown House are nearby.

Denver has numerous art districts, including Denver's Art District on Santa Fe and the River North Art District (RiNo).[136]

While Denver may not be as recognized for historical musical prominence as some other American cities, it has an active pop, jazz, jam, folk, metal, and classical music scene, which has nurtured several artists and genres to regional, national, and even international attention. Of particular note is Denver's importance in the folk scene of the 1960s and 1970s. Well-known folk artists such as Bob Dylan, Judy Collins and John Denver lived in Denver at various points during this time and performed at local clubs.[137] Three members of the widely popular group Earth, Wind, and Fire are also from Denver. More recent Denver-based artists include India Arie, Nathaniel Rateliff & the Night Sweats, The Lumineers, Air Dubai, The Fray, Flobots, Cephalic Carnage, Axe Murder Boyz, Deuce Mob, Havok, Bloodstrike, Primitive Man, and Five Iron Frenzy.[citation needed] Denver is also home to the Denver Record Collectors Expo, a biannual music collectors event.

Because of its proximity to the mountains and generally sunny weather, Denver has gained a reputation as being a very active, outdoor-oriented city. Many Denver residents spend the weekends in the mountains; skiing in the winter and hiking, climbing, kayaking, and camping in the summer.

Denver and surrounding cities are home to a large number of local and national breweries. Many of the region's restaurants have on-site breweries, and some larger brewers offer tours, including Coors and New Belgium Brewing Company. The city also welcomes visitors from around the world when it hosts the annual Great American Beer Festival each fall.

Denver used to be a major trading center for beef and livestock when ranchers would drive (or later transport) cattle to the Denver Union Stockyards for sale. As a celebration of that history, for more than a century Denver has hosted the annual National Western Stock Show, attracting as many as 10,000 animals and 700,000 attendees. The show is held every January at the National Western Complex northeast of downtown.

Denver has one of the country's largest populations of Mexican Americans and hosts four large Mexican-American celebrations: Cinco de Mayo (with over 500,000 attendees),[138] in May; El Grito de la Independencia, in September; the annual Lowrider show, and the Dia De Los Muertos art shows/events in North Denver's Highland neighborhood, and the Lincoln Park neighborhood in the original section of West Denver.

Denver is known for its dedication to New Mexican cuisine and the Chile. It is best known for its green and red chile sauce, Colorado burrito, Southwest (Denver) omelette, breakfast burrito, empanadas, chiles rellenos, and tamales. Denver is also known for other types of food such as Rocky Mountain oysters, rainbow trout, and the Denver sandwich.

The Dragon Boat Festival in July, Moon Festival in September and Chinese New Year are annual events in Denver for the Chinese and Asian-American communities. Chinese hot pot (huo guo) and Korean BBQ restaurants have been growing in popularity. The Denver area has two Chinese newspapers, the Chinese American Post and the Colorado Chinese News.[139] A Korean Newspaper, the "Colorado Times News" is also based in Denver.[140]

Denver has long been a place tolerant of the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community. Many gay bars can be found on Colfax Avenue and on South Broadway. Every June, Denver hosts the annual Denver PrideFest in Civic Center Park, the largest LGBTQ Pride festival in the Rocky Mountain region.[141]

Denver is the setting for The Bill Engvall Show, Tim Allen's Last Man Standing, and the 18th season of MTV's The Real World. It was also the setting for the prime time drama Dynasty from 1981 to 1989 (although the show was mostly filmed in Los Angeles). From 1998 to 2002 the city's Alameda East Veterinary Hospital was home to the Animal Planet series Emergency Vets, which spun off three documentary specials and the current Animal Planet series E-Vet Interns. The city is also the setting for the Disney Channel sitcom Good Luck Charlie.

Sports

[edit]

Denver is home to a variety of sports teams and is one of 12 U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports (the Denver metro area is the smallest metropolitan area in the country to have a team in all four major sports leagues). Including MLS soccer, it is also one of 10 U.S. cities to have five major sports teams.

The Denver Broncos of the National Football League have drawn crowds of over 70,000 since their origins in the early 1960s, and continue to draw fans today to their current home Empower Field at Mile High. The Broncos have sold out every home game (except for strike-replacement games) since 1970.[142] The Broncos have advanced to eight Super Bowls and won back-to-back titles in 1997 and 1998, and won again in 2015.

The Colorado Rockies were created as an expansion franchise in 1993 and Coors Field opened in 1995. The Rockies advanced to the playoffs that year but were eliminated in the first round. In 2007, they advanced to the playoffs as a wild-card entrant, won the NL Championship Series, and brought the World Series to Denver for the first time but were swept in four games by the Boston Red Sox.

Denver has been home to two National Hockey League teams. The Colorado Rockies played from 1976 to 1982, but later moved to the New York metropolitan area to become the New Jersey Devils. The Colorado Avalanche joined in 1995, after relocating from Quebec City. While in Denver, they have won three Stanley Cups in 1996, 2001, and 2022. The Denver Nuggets joined the American Basketball Association in 1967 and the National Basketball Association in 1976. The Nuggets won their first NBA championship in 2023. The Avalanche and Nuggets have both played at Ball Arena (formerly known as Pepsi Center) since 1999. The Major League Soccer team Colorado Rapids play in Dick's Sporting Goods Park, an 18,000-seat soccer-specific stadium opened for the 2007 MLS season in the Denver suburb of Commerce City.[143] The Rapids won the MLS Cup in 2010.

Major League sports teams
Club League Venue Attendance Attendance rank in League Start Championship
Denver Broncos NFL Empower Field at Mile High 76,388[144] 5th of 32 1960 1997, 1998, 2015
Colorado Rockies MLB Coors Field 32,196[145] 14th of 30 1993  
Denver Nuggets NBA Ball Arena 19,669[146] 6th of 30 1967 2023
Colorado Avalanche NHL Ball Arena 17,991[147] 13th of 32 1995 1996, 2001, 2022
Colorado Rapids MLS Dick's Sporting Goods Park 15,409[148] 28th of 29 1996 2010

Denver has several additional professional teams. In 2006, Denver established a Major League Lacrosse team, the Denver Outlaws. They play in Empower Field at Mile High. In 2006, the Denver Outlaws won the Western Conference Championship and then won their first championship in 2014 eight years later. They also won in 2016 and 2018 and would fold in 2020 with the MLL-PLL merger. The Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League play at Ball Arena. They won championships in 2006 and 2022.

In 2018, the Denver Bandits were established as the first professional football team for women in Colorado and will be a part of the initial season for the Women's National Football Conference (WNFC) in 2019. Denver was awarded a National Women's Soccer League team in 2025.

Denver submitted the winning bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics but subsequently withdrew, giving it the distinction of being the first city to back out after having won its bid to host the Olympics.[57] Denver and Colorado Springs hosted the 1962 World Ice Hockey Championships.

Parks and recreation

[edit]

As of 2006, Denver had over 200 parks, from small pocket parks all over the city to the giant 314-acre (1.27 km2) City Park.[149] Denver also has 29 recreation centers providing places and programming for resident's recreation and relaxation.[150]

Many of Denver's parks were acquired from state lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This coincided with the City Beautiful movement, and Denver mayor Robert Speer (1904–12 and 1916–18) set out to expand and beautify the city's parks. Reinhard Schuetze was the city's first landscape architect, and he brought his German-educated landscaping genius to Washington Park, Cheesman Park, and City Park among others. Speer used Schuetze as well as other landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Saco Rienk DeBoer to design not only parks such as Civic Center Park, but many city parkways and tree-lawns. Cheesman Park neighbor the Denver Botanic Gardens displays the beauty and versatility of micro-climates within the semi-arid Denver Basin. All of these parks were fed with South Platte River water diverted through the city ditch.[151]

In addition to the parks within Denver, the city acquired land for mountain parks starting in the 1911s.[152] Over the years, Denver has acquired, built and maintained approximately 14,000 acres (57 km2) of mountain parks, including Red Rocks Park, which is known for its scenery and musical history revolving around the unique Red Rocks Amphitheatre.[153][154] Denver also owns the mountain on which the Winter Park Resort ski area operates in Grand County, 67 miles (110 km) west of Denver.[155] City parks are important places for Denverites and visitors, inciting controversy with every change. Denver continues to grow its park system with the development of many new parks along the Platte River through the city, and with Central Park and Bluff Lake Nature Center in the Central Park neighborhood redevelopment. All of these parks are important gathering places for residents and allow what was once a dry plain to be lush, active, and green. Denver is also home to a large network of public community gardens, most of which are managed by Denver Urban Gardens, a non-profit organization.

Since 1974, Denver and the surrounding jurisdictions have rehabilitated the urban South Platte River and its tributaries for recreational use by hikers and cyclists. The main stem of the South Platte River Greenway runs along the South Platte 35 miles (56 km) into Adams County in the north. The Greenway project is recognized as one of the best urban reclamation projects in the U.S., winning, for example, the Silver Medal Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence in 2001.[156]

As of 2022, Park Score by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported Denver as having the 18th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. The report noted that 89% of Denverites live within a 10-minute walk of a park.[157]

Government

[edit]
Denver City and County Building
Colorado Supreme Court, just before completion
Colorado State Capitol looking east

Denver is a consolidated city-county with a mayor elected on a nonpartisan ballot, a 13-member city council, and an auditor. The Denver City Council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. The city council can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials. All elected officials have four-year terms, with a maximum of three terms. The current mayor is Mike Johnston.

Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or veto any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. The council can override the mayor's veto with a nine votes. The city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually for financial reasons.[158]

The Denver Department of Safety oversees three branches: the Denver Police Department, Denver Fire Department, and Denver Sheriff Department. The Denver County Court is an integrated Colorado County Court and Municipal Court and is managed by Denver instead of the state.

Politics

[edit]

While Denver elections are nonpartisan, Democrats have long dominated the city's politics; most citywide officials are known to be registered with the Democratic Party. The mayor's office has been occupied by a Democrat since the 1963 municipal election. All the city's seats in the state legislature are held by Democrats.

In statewide elections, the city also tends to favor Democrats, though Republicans were occasionally competitive until the turn of the millennium. The last Republican to win Denver in a gubernatorial election was John A. Love in 1970 by a narrow majority.[159] Bill Owens in 2002 remains the last Republican governor to receive at least 40% of Denver's vote.[160] The last Republican Senator to carry Denver was William L. Armstrong during his 1984 landslide.[161] The last statewide Republican officeholder to carry Denver was Secretary of State Victoria Buckley in 1994 by 1.2% margin; she was, at the time, the highest ranking African-American Republican woman in the United States.[162][163]

In federal elections, Denver is a Democratic stronghold. It has supported a Democrat for president in every election since 1984. Despite then-president Ronald Reagan's landslide that year both nationally and in Colorado, Democrat Walter Mondale won Denver by a margin of 2.32%, and since then the party has increased its margin in almost every election. At the federal level, Denver is the heart of Colorado's 1st congressional district, which includes all of Denver and parts of Arapahoe County. It is the most Democratic district in the Mountain West and has been in Democratic hands for all but two terms since 1933. It is currently represented by Democrat Diana DeGette. A portion of southeast Denver, roughly half of the Indian Creek neighborhood and a small part of the Virginia Village neighborhood, is in Colorado's 6th congressional district, represented by Democrat Jason Crow.

Benjamin F. Stapleton was the mayor of Denver for two periods, from 1923 to 1931 and from 1935 to 1947. He was responsible for many civic improvements, notably during his second term, when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal. During this time, the park system was considerably expanded and the Civic Center completed. His signature project was the construction of Denver Municipal Airport, which began in 1929 amid heavy criticism. It was later renamed Stapleton International Airport in his honor. Today, the airport has been replaced by a neighborhood initially named Stapleton. In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, because of Stapleton's demonstrated racism and prominent membership in the Ku Klux Klan, neighborhood residents changed the name to Central Park.[164][165]

During the 1960s and 1970s, Denver was one of the centers of the Chicano Movement. The boxer-turned-activist Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales formed an organization called the Crusade for Justice, which battled police brutality, fought for bilingual education, and, most notably, hosted the First National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in March 1969.[166]

In recent years, Denver has taken a stance on helping people who are or become homeless, particularly under the administrations of mayors John Hickenlooper and Wellington Webb. At a rate of 19 homeless per 10,000 residents in 2011 as compared to 50 or more per 10,000 residents for the four metro areas with the highest rate of homelessness,[167] Denver's homeless population and rate of homeless are both considerably lower than many other major cities. But residents of the city streets suffer Denver winters – which, although mild and dry much of the time, can have brief periods of extremely cold temperatures and snow.

In 2005, Denver became the first major U.S. city to vote to make the private possession of less than an ounce of marijuana legal for adults 21 and older.[168] The city voted 53.5 percent in favor of the marijuana legalization measure, which, as then-mayor John Hickenlooper pointed out, was without effect, because the city cannot usurp state law, which at that time treated marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time.[168] Denver passed an initiative in the fourth quarter of 2007 requiring the mayor to appoint an 11-member review panel to monitor the city's compliance with the 2005 ordinance.[169] In May 2019, Denver became the first U.S. city to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms after an initiative passed with 50.6% of the vote. The measure prohibits Denver from using any resources to prosecute adults over 21 for personal use of psilocybin mushrooms, though such use remains illegal under state and federal law.[170][171]

Denver hosted the 2008 Democratic National Convention, which was the centennial of the city's first hosting of the landmark 1908 convention. It also hosted the G7 summit between June 20 and 22 in 1997 and the 2000 National Convention of the Green Party.[172][173] In 1972, 1981, and 2008, Denver also hosted the Libertarian Party of the United States National Convention. The 1972 Convention was notable for nominating Tonie Nathan for vice president, the first woman, as well as the first Jew, to receive an electoral vote in a United States presidential election.

On October 3, 2012, the University of Denver hosted the first of the three 2012 presidential debates.[174]

In July 2019, Mayor Hancock said that Denver will not assist U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents with immigration raids.[175]

United States presidential election results for Denver County, Colorado[176]
Year Republican Democratic Third party(ies)
No.  % No.  % No.  %
2024 74,765 20.57% 278,634 76.65% 10,120 2.78%
2020 71,618 18.19% 313,293 79.55% 8,918 2.26%
2016 62,690 18.89% 244,551 73.69% 24,611 7.42%
2012 73,111 24.18% 222,018 73.41% 7,289 2.41%
2008 62,567 23.04% 204,882 75.45% 4,084 1.50%
2004 69,903 29.27% 166,135 69.56% 2,788 1.17%
2000 61,224 30.87% 122,693 61.86% 14,430 7.28%
1996 58,529 30.04% 120,312 61.76% 15,973 8.20%
1992 55,418 25.43% 121,961 55.97% 40,540 18.60%
1988 77,753 37.13% 127,173 60.72% 4,504 2.15%
1984 105,096 47.83% 110,200 50.15% 4,442 2.02%
1980 88,398 42.19% 85,903 41.00% 35,207 16.80%
1976 105,960 46.73% 112,229 49.50% 8,549 3.77%
1972 121,995 54.14% 98,062 43.52% 5,278 2.34%
1968 92,003 43.54% 106,081 50.20% 13,233 6.26%
1964 73,279 33.57% 143,480 65.73% 1,529 0.70%
1960 109,446 49.59% 109,637 49.68% 1,618 0.73%
1956 121,402 55.91% 93,812 43.21% 1,907 0.88%
1952 119,792 56.09% 92,237 43.19% 1,534 0.72%
1948 76,364 45.17% 89,489 52.93% 3,214 1.90%
1944 86,331 48.75% 90,001 50.82% 759 0.43%
1940 81,328 46.91% 90,938 52.45% 1,105 0.64%
1936 50,743 33.28% 99,263 65.09% 2,486 1.63%
1932 59,372 43.48% 72,868 53.36% 4,318 3.16%
1928 73,543 63.40% 41,238 35.55% 1,221 1.05%
1924 59,077 63.44% 15,764 16.93% 18,282 19.63%
1920 43,581 62.03% 22,839 32.51% 3,838 5.46%
1916 23,185 33.84% 43,029 62.81% 2,298 3.35%
1912 8,155 13.59% 26,690 44.47% 25,171 41.94%
1908 30,193 45.95% 33,145 50.44% 2,369 3.61%
1904 32,667 51.73% 28,958 45.85% 1,528 2.42%

Taxes

[edit]

The City and County of Denver levies an occupational privilege tax (OPT or head tax) on employers and employees.

  • If any employee performs work in the city limits and is paid over $500 for that work in a single month, the employee and employer are both liable for the OPT regardless of where the main business office is located or headquartered.
  • The employer is liable for $4 per employee per month and the employee is liable for $5.75 per month.
  • It is the employer's responsibility to withhold, remit, and file the OPT returns. If an employer does not comply, the employer can be held liable for both portions of the OPT as well as penalties and interest.

Education

[edit]

Denver Public Schools (DPS) is the public school system in all of Denver.[177] It educates approximately 92,000 students in 92 elementary schools, 44 K-8 schools, 34 middle schools, 18 high schools, and 19 charter schools.[178] The first school of what is now DPS was a log cabin that opened in 1859, which later became East High School. East High School, along with the other three directional high schools (West, North, and South), made up the first four high schools in Denver.[179] The district boundaries are coextensive with the city limits.[180] The Cherry Creek School District serves some areas with Denver postal addresses that are outside the city limits.[180][181]

Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs. Three major public schools constitute the Auraria Campus: the University of Colorado Denver, Metropolitan State University of Denver, and Community College of Denver. The private University of Denver was the first institution of higher learning in the city and was founded in 1864. Other prominent Denver higher education institutions include Johnson & Wales University, Catholic (Jesuit) Regis University, and the city has Roman Catholic and Jewish institutions, as well as a health sciences school. In addition to those schools within the city, there are a number of schools throughout the surrounding metro area.

Media

[edit]

The Denver metropolitan area is served by a variety of media outlets in print, radio, television, and the Internet.

Television stations

[edit]

Denver is the 16th-largest market in the country for television, according to the 2009–2010 rankings from Nielsen Media Research.[182]

Radio stations

[edit]

Denver is also served by over 40 AM and FM radio stations, covering a wide variety of formats and styles. Denver–Boulder radio is the No. 19 market in the United States, according to the Spring 2011 Arbitron ranking (up from No. 20 in Fall 2009). For a list of Denver radio stations, see List of radio stations in Colorado.

Print

[edit]

After continued rivalry between Denver's two main newspapers, The Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News, the papers merged operations in 2001 under a joint operating agreement that formed the Denver Newspaper Agency.[183] This arrangement lasted until February 2009 when the E. W. Scripps Company, the owner of the Rocky Mountain News, closed the paper. There are also several alternative or localized newspapers published in Denver, including the Westword, Law Week Colorado, Out Front Colorado, and the Intermountain Jewish News. Denver is home to multiple regional magazines such as 5280, which takes its name from the city's mile-high elevation (5,280 feet or 1,609 meters). The Colorado Times News is a Korean-language publication based in Denver.[140]

Transportation

[edit]
Dawn over downtown Denver, viewed from the north with Pikes Peak and the southern Front Range to the south

City streets

[edit]
Colfax Avenue at Broadway, where the downtown street grid and the "normal" city grid meet. Colfax Avenue carries U.S. Highway 40 through Denver.

Most of Denver has a straightforward street grid oriented to the four cardinal directions. Blocks are usually identified in hundreds from the median streets, identified as "00", which are Broadway (the east–west median, running north–south) and Ellsworth Avenue (the north–south median, running east–west). Colfax Avenue, a major east–west artery through Denver, is 15 blocks (1500) north of the median. Avenues north of Ellsworth are numbered (with the exception of Colfax Avenue and several others, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. Blvd and Montview Blvd.), while avenues south of Ellsworth are named.

There is also an older downtown grid system that was designed to be parallel to the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek. Most of the streets downtown and in LoDo run northeast–southwest and northwest–southeast. This system has an unplanned benefit for snow removal; if the streets were in a normal N–S/E–W grid, only the N–S streets would receive sunlight. With the grid oriented to the diagonal directions, the NW–SE streets receive sunlight to melt snow in the morning and the NE–SW streets receive it in the afternoon. This idea was from Henry Brown the founder of the Brown Palace Hotel. There is now a plaque across the street from the Brown Palace Hotel that honors this idea. The NW–SE streets are numbered, while the NE–SW streets are named. The named streets start at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway with the block-long Cheyenne Place. The numbered streets start underneath the Colfax and I-25 viaducts. There are 27 named and 44 numbered streets on this grid. There are also a few vestiges of the old grid system in the normal grid, such as Park Avenue, Morrison Road, and Speer Boulevard. Larimer Street, named after William Larimer Jr., the founder of Denver, which is in the heart of LoDo, is the oldest street in Denver.

Speer Boulevard runs north–south through downtown Denver.

All roads in the downtown grid system are streets (e.g., 16th Street, Stout Street), except for the five NE–SW roads nearest the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway: Cheyenne Place, Cleveland Place, Court Place, Tremont Place and Glenarm Place. Roads outside that system that travel east–west are designated "avenues" and those that travel north–south are designated "streets" (e.g., Colfax Avenue, Lincoln Street). Boulevards are higher capacity streets and travel any direction (more commonly north and south). Smaller roads are sometimes referred to as places, drives (though not all drives are smaller capacity roads; some are major thoroughfares), or courts. Most streets outside the area between Broadway and Colorado Boulevard are organized alphabetically from the city's center.

East of Colorado Boulevard, the naming convention of streets takes on a predictable pattern of going through the alphabet by using each letter twice (i.e. AA, BB, CC, DD, through YY – there is no Z). The first street is almost always named after a plant or fruit, the second street is almost always named after a foreign place or location. For example, Jersey Street / Jasmine Street, Quebec Street / Quince Street, and Syracuse Street / Spruce Street. Inexplicably, the letter Y only has one street (Yosemite), and there is no Z. This double-alphabet naming convention continues in some form into Aurora, Colorado.

Some Denver streets have bicycle lanes, leaving a patchwork of disjointed routes throughout the city. There are over 850 miles (1,370 km)[184] of paved, off-road, bike paths in Denver parks and along bodies of water, like Cherry Creek and the South Platte. This allows for a significant portion of Denver's population to be bicycle commuters and has led to Denver being known as a bicycle-friendly city.[185] Some residents strongly oppose bike lanes, which has caused some plans to be watered down or nixed. The review process for one bike line on Broadway will last over a year before city council members will make a decision. In addition to the many bike paths, Denver launched B-Cycle – a citywide bicycle sharing program – in late April 2010. The B-Cycle network was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch, boasting 400 bicycles.[186]

The Denver Boot, a car-disabling device, was first used in Denver.[187]

Cycling

[edit]

The League of American Bicyclists rated Colorado as the sixth most bicycle-friendly state in the nation for 2024. This is due in large part to Front Range cities like Boulder, Fort Collins and Denver placing an emphasis on legislation, programs and infrastructure developments that promote cycling as a mode of transportation.[188] Walk Score has rated Denver as the fourth most bicycle-friendly large city in the United States.[189] According to data from the 2011 American Community Survey, Denver ranks 6th among US cities with populations over 400,000 in terms of the percentage of workers who commute by bicycle at 2.2% of commuters.[190]

B-Cycle – Denver's citywide bicycle sharing program – was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch in 2010, boasting 400 bicycles.[186] B-Cycle ridership peaked in 2014, then steadily declined. The program announced it would cease operations at the end of January 2020.[191][192][193] The city announced plans to seek one or more new contractors to run a bike-share program starting mid-2020.[194][195]

Electric rental scooters

[edit]

In 2018, electric scooter services began to place scooters in Denver. Hundreds of unsanctioned LimeBike and Bird electric scooters appeared on Denver streets in May, causing an uproar. In June, the city ordered the companies to remove them[196] and acted quickly to create an official program, including a requirement that scooters be left at RTD stops and out of the public right-of-way. Lime and Bird scooters then reappeared in late July, with limited compliance. Uber's Jump e-bikes arrived in late August, followed by Lyft's nationwide electric scooter launch in early September.[197] Lyft says that it will, each night, take the scooters to the warehouse for safety checks, maintenance and charging. Additionally, Spin and Razor each were permitted to add 350 scooters.[198]

Walkability

[edit]

2017 rankings by Walk Score placed Denver twenty-sixth among 108 U.S. cities with a population of 200,000 or greater.[189] City leaders have acknowledged the concerns of walkability advocates that Denver has serious gaps in its sidewalk network. The 2019 "Denver Moves: Pedestrians" plan outlines a need for approximate $1.3 billion in sidewalk funding, plus $400 million for trails.[199] In 2022, Denver voters passed Initiative 307, dubbed "Denver Deserves Sidewalks", to complete sidewalk construction and repair by shifting responsibility for sidewalk maintenance from property owners to the city and imposing a new fee on property owners based on the length of a property's sidewalk frontage,[200] although the measure may be revised in the course of implementation.[201]

[edit]

In 2015, 9.6 percent of Denver households lacked a car, and in 2016, this was virtually unchanged (9.4 percent). The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Denver averaged 1.62 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.[202]

Freeways and highways

[edit]

Denver is primarily served by the interstate freeways I-25 and I-70. The problematic intersection of the two interstates is referred to locally as "the mousetrap" because, when viewed from the air, the junction (and subsequent vehicles) resemble mice in a large trap.

Denver also has a nearly complete beltway known as "the 470's". These are SH 470 (also known as C-470), a freeway in the southwest Metro area, and two toll highways, E-470 (from southeast to northeast) and Northwest Parkway (from terminus of E-470 to US 36). SH 470 was intended to be I-470 and built with federal highway funds, but the funding was redirected to complete conversion of downtown Denver's 16th Street to a pedestrian mall. As a result, construction was delayed until 1980 after state and local legislation was passed.[203] I-470 was also once called "The Silver Stake Highway", from Gov. Lamm's declared intention to drive a silver stake through it and kill it.

A highway expansion and transit project for the southern I-25 corridor, dubbed T-REX (Transportation Expansion Project), was completed on November 17, 2006.[204] The project installed wider and additional highway lanes, and improved highway access and drainage. The project also includes a light rail line that traverses from downtown to the south end of the metro area at Lincoln Avenue.[205] The project spanned almost 19 miles (31 km) along the highway with an additional line traveling parallel to part of I-225, stopping just short of Parker Road.

Metro Denver highway conditions can be accessed on the Colorado Department of Transportation COtrip website.[206]

Mass transportation

[edit]
Denver RTD light rail and bus lines
Denver Union Station

Mass transportation throughout the Denver metropolitan area is managed and coordinated by the Regional Transportation District (RTD). RTD operates more than 1,000 buses serving over 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions in eight counties around the Denver and Boulder metropolitan areas. Additionally, RTD operates ten rail lines, the A, B, D, E, G, H, L, N, R, and W, with a total of 113 miles (182 km) of track, serving 77 stations, 35 of which are located within the City of Denver proper. The D, E, H, L, R, and W Lines are light rail while the A, B, G, and N Lines are commuter rail.

FasTracks is a commuter rail, light rail, and bus expansion project approved by voters in 2004, which will serve neighboring suburbs and communities. The W Line, or West line, opened in April 2013 serving Golden/Federal Center. The commuter rail A Line from Denver Union Station to Denver International Airport opened in April 2016 with ridership exceeding RTD's early expectations.[207] The light rail R Line through Aurora opened in February 2017.[208] The G Line to the suburb of Arvada (originally planned to open in the Fall of 2016) opened on April 26, 2019.[209] The N Line to Commerce City and Thornton opened on September 21, 2020.[210]

An express bus service, known as the Flatiron Flyer, serves to connect Boulder and Denver. The service, billed as bus rapid transit, has been accused of bus rapid transit creep for failing to meet the majority of BRT requirements, including level boarding and all-door entry. A commuter rail connection to Boulder and its suburb of Longmont, also part of the FasTracks ballot initiative and an extension of the B Line, is planned to be finished by RTD, but no construction funds have yet been identified prior to 2040.[211] RTD is currently considering an interim commuter service which would run rush-hour trains from Longmont to Denver.

The Colorado Department of Transportation runs Bustang, a bus system that offers weekday and weekend service connecting Denver with many locations across the state, including Grand Junction, Colorado Springs, Fort Collins, and Gunnison.[212]

Commuter rail station at Denver International Airport

Greyhound Lines, the intercity bus operator, has a major hub in Denver, with routes to New York City, Portland, Reno, Las Vegas, and their headquarters, Dallas. Subsidiary Autobuses Americanos provides service to El Paso. Allied bus operators Express Arrow, and Burlington Trailways provide service to Billings, Omaha, Indianapolis, and Alamosa.

Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Denver, operating its California Zephyr daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco. Amtrak Thruway service operated by private bus companies links the Denver station with Rocky Mountain points. In 2017 the Colorado legislature reinvigorated studies of passenger rail service along the Front Range, potentially connecting Denver to Fort Collins and Pueblo, or further to Amtrak connections in Cheyenne, Wyoming and Trinidad.[213] Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal (as of 2023) to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly to Cheyenne, Wyoming.[214]

At Albuquerque, New Mexico, Denver Thruway connections are made daily with the Amtrak Southwest Chief. Additionally, the Ski Train operated on the former Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which took passengers between Denver and the Winter Park Ski Resort, but it is no longer in service. The Ski Train made its final run to Winter Park on March 29, 2009. The service was revived on a trial basis in 2016 with a great amount of local fanfare. Further development of a mountain corridor rail option, though publicly popular, has been met with resistance from politicians, namely the director of Colorado Department of Transportation.[215][failed verification] The Ski Train did return to service under Amtrak with the name "Winter Park Express" in 2017 and greatly expanded service for the 2024-2025 ski season, doubling capacity and increasing service to run Thursday-Monday during the winter ski seasons. The Colorado Department of Transportation plans to eventually expand service to Steamboat Springs and Craig as part of the Mountain Rail project.[216]

Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic Union Station, where travelers can access RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. Union Station will also serve as the main juncture for rail travel in the metro area, at the completion of FasTracks. The city also plans to invest billions to bringing frequent public transit within one-fourth of a mile of most of its residents.[217]

Denver public transportation statistics

[edit]

The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Denver and Boulder, Colorado—for example, to and from work, on a weekday—is 77 minutes; 31% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 minutes, while 25% of riders wait for over 20 minutes, on average, every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 6.96 miles (11.20 km), while 31% travel over 7.46 miles (12.01 km) in a single direction.[218]

Airports

[edit]
Inside the main terminal of Denver International Airport
Outside view of the main terminal, DIA

Denver International Airport (IATA: DEN, ICAO: KDEN), commonly known as DIA, serves as the primary airport for the Front Range Urban Corridor surrounding Denver. DIA is 18.6 miles (30 km) east-northeast of the Colorado State Capitol and opened in 1995. DIA is the 3rd busiest airport in the world with 58.8 million passengers in 2021;[219] it had the 5th highest number of passengers in the U.S., 61 million, in the pre-pandemic year 2019.[220] It covers more than 52.4 square miles (135.7 km2), making it the largest airport by land area in the United States and larger than the island of Manhattan.[221] DIA serves as a major hub for United Airlines, is the headquarters and primary hub for Frontier Airlines, and is a major focus city and the fastest-growing market for Southwest Airlines.

In 2017, Denver International Airport was rated by Skytrax as the 28th-best airport in the world, falling to second place in the United States behind Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport. Skytrax also named DIA as the second-best regional airport in North America for 2017, and the fourth-best regional airport in the world.

Three general aviation airports serve the Denver area. Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport (KBJC) is 13.7 miles (22 km) north-northwest, Centennial Airport (KAPA) is 13.7 miles (22 km) south-southeast, and Colorado Air and Space Port (KCFO), formerly Front Range Airport, is 23.7 miles (38 km) east of the state capitol. Centennial Airport also offers limited commercial airline service, on two cargo airlines.

In the past, Denver has been home to several other airports that are no longer operational. Stapleton International Airport was closed in 1995 when it was replaced by DIA. Lowry Air Force Base was a military flight training facility that ceased flight operations in 1966, with the base finally closing in 1994. Both Stapleton and Lowry have since been redeveloped into primarily residential neighborhoods. Buckley Space Force Base is the only military facility in the Denver area.

Notable people

[edit]

Twin towns – sister cities

[edit]

Denver's relationship with Brest, France, began in 1948, making it the second-oldest sister city in the United States.[222] In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited World War II–ravaged Brest. When she returned, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital. The gift led to the development of the sister city program with Brest.[223] There were serious efforts in the early 2000s, in both Denver and Sochi, Russian Federation, to establish sister-city ties, but the negotiations did not come to fruition.

Since then, Denver has established relationships with additional sister cities:[224]

See also

[edit]
 

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Denver has maintained its official mile-high elevation of 5,280 feet (1,609.344 m) for more than a century. When the National Geodetic Survey makes adjustments to its national elevation measurements, the State of Colorado moves the official mile-high elevation point up or down the west steps of the Colorado State Capitol to reflect the changes. Most of Denver actually lies above this elevation.
  2. ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
  3. ^ The official weather records for Denver were recorded in Downtown Denver from January 1872 to December 1949, at Stapleton International Airport from January 1950 to February 1995, and at Denver International Airport since March 1995.

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